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Government
Study Notes
All notes follow the official WAEC and JAMB approved syllabus. Covers Elements of Government, Nigerian Political History, International Relations, and Exam Skills. Study a section first, then take the practice quiz — after the test, come back to see which topics need work.
Meaning & Concepts
Definition, scope, functions and political ideologies
Forms & Systems of Govt
Democracy, federalism, parliamentary, presidential
Organs of Government
Legislature, Executive, Judiciary — structure and functions
Constitution & Rule of Law
Types of constitutions, separation of powers, rule of law
Elections & Political Parties
Electoral systems, suffrage, party types, INEC
Citizenship & Civil Service
Rights, duties, civil service structure and functions
Pressure Groups & Opinion
Types of pressure groups, public opinion, mass media
Pre-Colonial Systems
Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa-Fulani, Tiv — political structures
Colonial Administration
British indirect rule, French assimilation, amalgamation
Nationalism & Independence
Nationalist leaders, movements, path to 1960
Constitutional History
1922, 1946, 1951, 1954, 1960, 1963, 1979, 1999
Military Rule
Causes, regimes, impact, return to democracy
Federalism & Local Govt
Federal system, local government reforms, functions
Foreign Policy
Nigeria's foreign policy principles, relations with other states
International Organisations
UN, AU, ECOWAS, Commonwealth, OPEC
Exam Format Guide
WAEC Papers 1 & 2 · JAMB structure · study tips
Meaning & Concepts of Government
Government refers to: (1) the institution or machinery through which the state exercises authority and administers public policy; (2) the process of governing — how a state is controlled and administered; (3) the academic discipline — the study of political systems, institutions, and ideas.
• Law-making — enacting rules to regulate society (Legislature)
• Law enforcement/execution — implementing policies (Executive)
• Interpretation of laws — resolving disputes (Judiciary)
• Maintenance of order and security — police, army
• Promotion of welfare — health, education, infrastructure
• Protection of rights — guaranteeing civil liberties
• External relations — diplomacy and foreign policy
| Concept | Definition |
|---|---|
| State | A politically organised community with a defined territory, permanent population, sovereign government, and capacity for international relations |
| Nation | A group of people bound by common culture, language, history, and identity — may or may not have a state |
| Sovereignty | Supreme and absolute authority of a state to govern itself. Internal: supreme over citizens. External: independent of other states. |
| Power | The ability to influence or control the behaviour of others |
| Authority | Legitimate or rightful power — power accepted as valid by those over whom it is exercised |
| Legitimacy | The rightful, accepted basis for the exercise of power; a government is legitimate when citizens recognise its right to rule |
| Democracy | A system where supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly or through elected representatives |
| Separation of Powers | The division of government powers into Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary to prevent concentration of power |
| Checks and Balances | Mechanism by which each branch of government can limit the powers of the other two branches |
| Rule of Law | A.V. Dicey's principle: (1) No one is above the law; (2) Equality before the law; (3) Rights are the result of judicial decisions |
| Ideology | Core Belief | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Capitalism | Private ownership of means of production; free market economy | Individual profit, competition, limited state intervention |
| Socialism | Collective/public ownership of major means of production | Welfare state, equality, state planning of economy |
| Communism | Classless society with common ownership of all means of production | No private property, state controls everything, single party (e.g. USSR) |
| Fascism | Ultranationalist, totalitarian single-party state | Dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition (e.g. Mussolini's Italy) |
| Feudalism | A hierarchical system where nobles own land in exchange for military service | Lords, vassals, serfs; pre-industrial; basis of medieval Europe |
| Communalism | Traditional African system where land and resources are communally owned | Village councils, collective decision-making, no individual land ownership |
Most tested: The distinction between state and nation; the three components of Dicey's Rule of Law; and definitions of sovereignty, legitimacy, and authority. JAMB also frequently tests political ideologies — know the key difference: capitalism (private) vs socialism (collective) vs communism (classless + stateless).
Forms & Systems of Government
| Form | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Democracy | Government by the people — directly (direct democracy) or through elected representatives (representative/indirect democracy) | Nigeria, USA, UK |
| Autocracy / Dictatorship | Rule by one person with unlimited power, not accountable to the people | Military juntas, North Korea |
| Oligarchy | Rule by a small privileged group | Sparta in ancient Greece |
| Monarchy | Rule by a king or queen. Absolute: unlimited power. Constitutional: limited by a constitution (symbolic role). | UK (constitutional), Saudi Arabia (absolute) |
| Aristocracy | Rule by a noble or hereditary class | Pre-democratic Europe |
| Theocracy | Government based on religious law, where religious leaders rule | Iran, Vatican |
| Totalitarianism | The state controls all aspects of public and private life | Nazi Germany, Stalin's USSR |
| Feature | Presidential System | Parliamentary System |
|---|---|---|
| Head of Government | President (also Head of State) | Prime Minister (drawn from Parliament) |
| Separation of powers | Strict — executive is separate from legislature | Fusion — executive drawn from legislature |
| Tenure | Fixed term (e.g. 4 years in Nigeria) | Can be voted out at any time (vote of no confidence) |
| Cabinet responsibility | Individually responsible to President, not to legislature | Cabinet collectively responsible to Parliament |
| Example | Nigeria, USA | UK, India, Ghana (pre-1966) |
Federal State: Powers divided between a central (federal) government and component units (states/regions). Written constitution essential. Powers entrenched — neither level can absorb the other. Examples: Nigeria, USA, India.
Unitary State: All powers concentrated at the centre. Regional governments exist at the pleasure of the centre. Examples: UK, France, Ghana.
Confederation: A loose union of sovereign states that cede some powers to a central body but retain sovereignty. The centre is subordinate to the member states. Example: EU (loosely), USA 1776–1787.
Most tested: Differences between presidential and parliamentary systems — especially fixed vs unfixed tenure, and separation vs fusion of powers. Also: federal vs unitary distinctions. Nigeria practices presidential federalism — both concepts apply.
Organs of Government
The Legislature (National Assembly in Nigeria) is the law-making arm of government.
| Feature | Nigeria (Bicameral) | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Upper House | Senate — 109 senators (3 per state + 1 FCT) | Initiates and approves legislation; confirms presidential appointments |
| Lower House | House of Representatives — 360 members | Initiates bills; appropriates funds; represents constituencies |
• Law-making — the primary function
• Appropriation — approving the budget (power of the purse)
• Oversight — monitoring the Executive (committee investigations)
• Amendment of the constitution
• Confirmation of presidential appointments (Senate)
• Impeachment of the President/Vice-President
• Representation of the people's interests
Unicameral: One chamber only. Simpler, faster legislation. Common in unitary states.
Bicameral: Two chambers. Provides checks within the legislature itself. Common in federal states like Nigeria.
The Executive implements and enforces laws. In Nigeria's presidential system, it is headed by the President.
• Implementation and execution of laws made by the legislature
• Formulation of government policy
• Defence and security of the nation
• Appointment of ministers, ambassadors, and other officials
• Foreign policy and diplomatic relations
• Preparation and presentation of the budget
• Initiating legislation (bills sent to the legislature)
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Single Executive | One person holds executive power (President is both Head of State and Government) | Nigeria, USA |
| Plural Executive | Executive power shared among a group (e.g. a cabinet or council) | Switzerland |
| Nominal Executive | Ceremonial Head of State with no real power | UK Monarch, German President |
| Real Executive | The actual decision-making authority | Nigerian President, UK Prime Minister |
The Judiciary interprets laws and resolves disputes. It is the guardian of the constitution and protector of individual rights.
• Interpretation of the constitution and other laws
• Settlement of disputes between individuals, companies, or governments
• Judicial review — declaring laws or executive actions unconstitutional
• Protecting fundamental human rights
• Determining guilt or innocence in criminal cases
• Impeachment trials (removal of public officials)
1. Supreme Court — highest court; final court of appeal
2. Court of Appeal — hears appeals from Federal High Court and State High Courts
3. Federal High Court — federal matters
4. State High Courts — state matters
5. Magistrate/District Courts — minor matters
6. Customary/Area Courts — customary and Islamic law
Judicial Independence is essential for the rule of law. Judges cannot be dismissed arbitrarily; their pay is charged on the Consolidated Revenue Fund (not annually voted on); they decide cases without fear or favour. WAEC frequently asks: "How is judicial independence guaranteed in Nigeria?"
Constitution & Rule of Law
A constitution is the fundamental law of a state — it establishes the structure of government, defines the powers of the organs of government, guarantees citizens' rights, and limits governmental authority.
• Legislative enactments — acts of parliament (e.g. Nigerian Independence Constitution 1960)
• Judicial decisions/precedents (common law) — key in the UK
• Customs and conventions — unwritten, long-standing practices
• Opinions of jurists — scholarly legal interpretations
• Previous constitutions — past constitutions as a source
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Written Constitution | All fundamental laws in one single document | Nigeria (1999), USA |
| Unwritten Constitution | Not in a single document; spread across statutes, conventions, judicial precedents | United Kingdom |
| Rigid Constitution | Difficult to amend; requires special procedure (supermajority, referendum) | Nigeria (1999 Constitution) |
| Flexible Constitution | Can be amended by ordinary legislative process | UK Parliament can change any law with simple majority |
| Federal Constitution | Divides power between central and sub-unit governments; supreme law | Nigeria, USA |
| Unitary Constitution | Power concentrated at the centre; regional bodies are subordinate | UK, France |
Functions of a Constitution: Establishes structure of government; defines powers; guarantees fundamental rights; provides basis for citizenship; limits arbitrary rule; promotes unity. WAEC often asks "State FIVE functions of a constitution."
| Pillar | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 1. Supremacy of Law | No person is above the law; the law is supreme. Every citizen — including government officials — is subject to the law. |
| 2. Equality Before the Law | All persons, regardless of status, are equal before the ordinary courts of the land. No special courts for the elite. |
| 3. Rights from Judicial Decisions | Individual rights are not granted by the constitution but result from judicial decisions — the courts protect rights. |
• State of emergency — rights may be suspended
• Diplomatic immunity — ambassadors not subject to local courts
• Official secrecy laws — restrict access to government information
• Immunity clauses — the 1999 Constitution grants immunity to the President, Vice-President, Governors while in office
• Poverty/illiteracy — prevents some citizens from enforcing their rights
Constitutionalism = the practice of limited government according to a constitution. It means that the constitution is not just written but actually followed. Checks and balances and separation of powers are instruments of constitutionalism.
Elections, Electoral Systems & Political Parties
| System | How it Works | Used in |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Majority (First-Past-the-Post) | Candidate with most votes wins — even without an absolute majority | UK, USA, Nigeria (National Assembly) |
| Absolute Majority (Two-Round) | Must win more than 50% of votes. If not, top two contest a run-off | France, Nigeria (Presidential — 25% in 2/3 of states requirement) |
| Proportional Representation | Seats allocated in proportion to votes received by each party | Israel, South Africa |
| Preferential/Alternative Vote | Voters rank candidates; second preferences redistributed until one has majority | Australia |
A presidential candidate wins if they have: (1) the highest number of votes, AND (2) at least 25% of votes in at least 24 states (two-thirds of the 36 states). If no one qualifies, the election goes to a run-off. This formula is unique to Nigeria.
Universal Adult Suffrage — the right of all adult citizens to vote, regardless of sex, race, religion, or property. In Nigeria, the voting age is 18 years. INEC (Independent National Electoral Commission) manages all federal and state elections.
A political party is an organised group of people with shared political beliefs who seek to win power and implement their policies through elections.
| Party System | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| One-Party System | Only one party is legally permitted to exist and rule | China (CCP), North Korea |
| Two-Party System | Two major parties dominate; others exist but rarely win power | USA (Democrats/Republicans) |
| Multi-Party System | Several parties compete for power; coalitions are common | Nigeria (APC, PDP, LP, etc.), Germany |
• Recruitment and training of political leaders
• Articulation and aggregation of interests
• Formulation and presentation of government programmes (manifestos)
• Political education and socialisation of citizens
• Providing an opposition to check the government
• Linking the government with the people
INEC's functions: Organise, undertake and supervise all elections and referenda; register and monitor political parties; conduct voter education; regulate party finances; compile voter register. Also know: SIEC (State Independent Electoral Commission) handles local government elections.
Citizenship & Civil Service
A citizen is a legal member of a state who is entitled to its rights and protection and is subject to its obligations.
| Method of Acquiring Citizenship | Definition |
|---|---|
| Birth (Jus Soli) | Citizenship by virtue of being born in the country's territory |
| Descent (Jus Sanguinis) | Citizenship through parentage — born of citizens anywhere in the world |
| Naturalisation | Granted to foreigners after meeting legal requirements (residence, language, oath) |
| Registration | A simpler process for those with close ties (e.g. married to a citizen) |
Rights: vote and be voted for; freedom of speech, religion, assembly; right to education and fair trial; protection by the state abroad
Obligations: obey the laws; pay taxes; defend the country; participate in civic processes (voting, jury service); respect others' rights
• Renunciation — voluntarily giving up citizenship
• Deprivation — state withdrawing citizenship (e.g. for fraud or disloyalty)
• Nigeria's 1999 Constitution does not fully recognise dual citizenship for holders of public office, but ordinary citizens may hold dual nationality
The Civil Service is the permanent, non-political administrative body of government that implements government policies. Civil servants are appointed — not elected.
• Permanence — they remain in office regardless of changes in government
• Political neutrality — civil servants serve any government in power without bias
• Anonymity — they work behind the scenes; ministers take public credit or blame
• Impartiality — apply rules without favouritism
• Meritocracy — appointment based on qualification and competence
• Policy advice to ministers/political executives
• Implementation of government policies and programmes
• Drafting bills and regulations
• Collection of revenue (Federal Inland Revenue Service)
• Provision of public services (health, education, infrastructure)
• Record-keeping and provision of statistical data
Civil Service vs Public Service: The Civil Service is the core non-partisan permanent bureaucracy. The Public Service is broader — it includes the civil service plus parastatals, public corporations, the military, police, and other public bodies.
Pressure Groups, Public Opinion & Mass Media
A pressure group is an organised group that seeks to influence government policy without seeking to form the government itself. Unlike political parties, they do not contest elections.
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Sectional / Interest Groups | Represent a specific section of society; defend their own members' interests | NMA (Nigerian Medical Association), NLC (Nigeria Labour Congress), NBA (Nigerian Bar Association) |
| Promotional / Cause Groups | Promote a cause or idea for the benefit of society at large, not just members | Amnesty International, environmental groups, anti-corruption NGOs |
• Lobbying (direct contact with legislators and officials)
• Strike action and demonstrations
• Media campaigns and press releases
• Financing political parties or candidates
• Legal challenges (test cases in courts)
• Petitions and mass protests
• Educate and inform the public on issues
• Check government excesses (act as watchdogs)
• Represent minority or sectional interests
• Supplement political parties in expressing demands
• Provide government with technical information and expertise
• Promote active participation in government
Public opinion is the collective view of citizens on political, social, or economic issues. It influences government decisions in a democracy.
• Family and upbringing
• Education and schools
• Mass media (newspapers, TV, radio, social media)
• Religious institutions
• Political parties and pressure groups
• Personal experience
• Information — keep citizens informed about government actions
• Watchdog — investigative journalism holds government accountable
• Agenda-setting — influence what issues the public and government prioritise
• Political socialisation — shape political values and attitudes
• Mobilisation — encourage voter turnout and civic participation
• Forum for debate — platform for opposing views
Pressure groups vs Political parties: Pressure groups do NOT seek power — they seek to INFLUENCE those in power. Political parties seek to WIN and exercise power. This is the core distinction WAEC and JAMB test.
Pre-Colonial Political Systems
Key Feature: Monarchical system — the Oba (king) was the central figure, but power was limited and balanced by chiefs and councils.
• Alaafin (Oba) — sacred ruler; head of state; administered with the help of chiefs
• Oyo Mesi (Council of State, 7 nobles) — most powerful check on the Alaafin; could ask him to "open the calabash" (commit suicide) if he ruled badly
• Ogboni Society — powerful secret society; religious and judicial functions
• Basorun — head of the Oyo Mesi; most powerful political official
• Are-Ona-Kakanfo — commander-in-chief of the army
The Yoruba system had a built-in system of checks and balances. The Alaafin's power was checked by the Oyo Mesi; the Oyo Mesi was checked by the Ogboni Society. WAEC tests this balance of power regularly.
Key Feature: Acephalous (stateless/chiefless) — largely democratic and republican, without a central king. Decision-making was at the village/community level.
• Village Assembly (Oha na Eze) — all adult males met to make decisions by consensus
• Elders (Ndi-Iche) — respected older men who guided community decisions
• Age Grades — organised groups of men of similar age; performed community services (policing, public works)
• Title Societies (Ozo) — wealthy men who bought titles gained prestige and political influence
• Oracles (e.g. Ibini Ukpabi/Long Juju of Arochukwu) — religious institutions with judicial authority
The Igbo political system is described as "democratic" because decisions were made by consensus. There was NO king — this is a key distinction from Yoruba and Hausa-Fulani systems. JAMB loves this contrast.
Key Feature: Centralised theocratic monarchy after the Fulani Jihad of 1804. The Emir combined political and religious authority.
• Sultan of Sokoto — overall spiritual and political head of all Emirate states
• Emir — ruler of each emirate; appointed by and accountable to the Sultan
• Waziri — Prime Minister / Chief Adviser to the Emir
• Galadima — responsible for the capital city
• Government based on Islamic law (Sharia)
| Group | System | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Tiv | Segmentary / Acephalous | No central authority; organised by lineage and elders; councils of elders settled disputes |
| Benin Kingdom | Centralised monarchy | Oba of Benin was divine ruler; Uzama (council of hereditary chiefs) advised; strong military |
| Efik (Calabar) | Trading city-state | Ekpe (Leopard Society) — powerful secret society that regulated trade and society |
Colonial Administration
The British Indirect Rule policy was the system of governing Nigeria through existing traditional rulers and institutions. It was pioneered by Lord Frederick Lugard, first applied in Northern Nigeria (1900), then extended nationwide after amalgamation (1914).
• Rule through existing traditional rulers (Emirs, Obas, Chiefs)
• Traditional rulers collected taxes, maintained order, and administered justice
• British Residents supervised but did not directly govern
• Native Treasuries collected and retained local revenue
• Native Courts administered customary law
• Cheap — reduced the need for large numbers of British officials
Successes: Worked well in the North (where Emirs had strong centralised authority); cheap and efficient; preserved African culture
Failures: Failed in Eastern Nigeria (Igbo had no chiefs — Warrant Chiefs were fake and unpopular; led to the 1929 Aba Women's Riots); corrupted traditional rulers; undermined traditional authority; created an educated elite with no power
Why indirect rule failed in Eastern Nigeria: The Igbo had an acephalous system — no traditional kings. The British created Warrant Chiefs (appointed, not traditional), which was alien, illegitimate, and resented. This led to the Aba Women's Riots of 1929. This is the most-tested specific failure of indirect rule.
| Policy | Definition | Evaluation |
|---|---|---|
| Assimilation | French colonies would be fully integrated into France; Africans would become French citizens with the same rights as French people, if they adopted French culture, language, and values | Failed — very few Africans could qualify; impractical; culturally destructive |
| Association | Replaced assimilation; Africans would develop their own cultures alongside French administration, in association but not as equals | Still imposed French values; less extreme than assimilation but still paternalistic |
On 1 January 1914, Lord Lugard amalgamated the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria into one entity: Nigeria. The Colony of Lagos was merged into the Southern Protectorate in 1906. The amalgamation was primarily for administrative and economic efficiency — the South subsidised the North.
Nationalism & Nigerian Independence
Nationalism is the desire of a people to govern themselves and rid themselves of foreign rule. In Nigeria it developed from the 1920s onwards.
• Western education — educated Nigerians became aware of their rights
• Racial discrimination — educated Africans excluded from senior colonial positions
• World War II — Nigerians fought for "freedom" abroad and questioned why they had none at home
• Atlantic Charter (1941) — Allies' promise of self-determination for all peoples
• Growth of the press — newspapers spread nationalist ideas
• Pan-Africanism — ideas of African unity and dignity (Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. Du Bois)
| Leader | Party / Role | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Herbert Macaulay | NNDP (Nigerian National Democratic Party, 1923) | Father of Nigerian Nationalism; first organised political party in Nigeria |
| Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe (Zik) | NCNC (National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, 1944) | First President of Nigeria; strongest nationalist voice; nationalist press |
| Chief Obafemi Awolowo | AG (Action Group, 1951) | Premier of Western Region; advocate of federalism; free education in the West |
| Sir Ahmadu Bello | NPC (Northern Peoples Congress, 1949) | Sardauna of Sokoto; Premier of Northern Region; promoted Northern interests |
| Abubakar Tafawa Balewa | NPC / Federal level | First Prime Minister of Nigeria; led at independence October 1, 1960 |
• 1922 — Clifford Constitution: first elections in Nigeria
• 1923 — NNDP founded by Herbert Macaulay
• 1944 — NCNC founded
• 1 October 1960 — Nigeria's Independence
• 1 October 1963 — Nigeria becomes a Republic
Constitutional Developments in Nigeria
| Constitution | Year | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Clifford Constitution | 1922 | First to introduce elective principle; Lagos and Calabar got elected members; property qualification for voters; very limited franchise |
| Richards Constitution | 1946 | Introduced regionalism (North, East, West); Nigerian participation in central legislature; but Africans had no real power — widely criticised |
| Macpherson Constitution | 1951 | Greater Nigerian participation; regional legislatures with more powers; opened door for nationalist politics; broke down due to ethnic tensions |
| Lyttleton Constitution | 1954 | Introduced true federalism; regions gained greater autonomy; became blueprint for independence |
| Independence Constitution | 1960 | Nigeria became independent; parliamentary system; Westminster model; Governor-General as Head of State; Tafawa Balewa as PM |
| Republican Constitution | 1963 | Nigeria became a republic; Nnamdi Azikiwe became first President (ceremonial); retained parliamentary system |
| Constitution | Year | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| 1979 Constitution | 1979 | Introduced presidential system; Shehu Shagari became first executive President; 19 states; Second Republic began; based on US model |
| 1989 Constitution | 1989 | Drafted under Babangida; presidential system; two-party system (NRC and SDP); never fully implemented; annulment of June 12 1993 election |
| 1999 Constitution | 1999 | Currently in use; presidential federal system; 36 states + FCT; Fourth Republic; Obasanjo first elected President; Chapter IV guarantees Fundamental Human Rights |
• Presidential system — President is Head of State and Government
• Federal structure — 36 states + FCT Abuja
• Bicameral legislature — Senate (109) + House of Representatives (360)
• Fundamental Human Rights (Chapter IV) — life, dignity, liberty, fair trial, private life, freedom of thought/expression/assembly
• Exclusive, Concurrent, and Residual Legislative Lists
• Revenue Allocation — governed by the constitution
Memorise this sequence: Clifford (1922) → Richards (1946) → Macpherson (1951) → Lyttleton (1954) → Independence (1960) → Republican (1963) → Military rule → 1979 → 1989 → 1999. Know the main feature of each one.
Military Rule in Nigeria
- Political instability and corruption in civilian governments
- Electoral malpractice and violence (e.g. 1964–65 election crises)
- Ethnic tension and tribalism — politicians manipulated ethnicity
- Economic mismanagement and underdevelopment
- Weak civilian institutions unable to manage political crises
- External influences — Cold War geopolitics
| Regime | Period | Key Events / Achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Ironsi | Jan–Jul 1966 | First military coup; Unification Decree No. 34 (attempted to abolish federalism — controversial); killed in counter-coup July 1966 |
| Gowon | 1966–1975 | Civil War (1967–70); creation of 12 states (1967); OPEC oil boom; NYSC established (1973); reconciliation — "No victor, no vanquished" |
| Murtala Mohammed | 1975–1976 | Federal capital moved to Abuja; created 19 states; mass purge of corrupt civil servants; assassinated Feb 1976 |
| Obasanjo (1st) | 1976–1979 | Continued Murtala's policies; handed over to civilian government (Shagari) in 1979; FESTAC 77 |
| Buhari | 1983–1985 | Overthrew Shagari; War Against Indiscipline (WAI); strict austerity; press censorship; ousted by Babangida |
| Babangida (IBB) | 1985–1993 | SAP (Structural Adjustment Programme); created 30 states (1991) then 36 states; June 12 1993 election (MKO Abiola won) — ANNULLED; stepped aside |
| ING (Shonekan) | Aug–Nov 1993 | Interim National Government; brief civilian interlude; removed by Abacha |
| Abacha | 1993–1998 | Harshest regime; imprisoned MKO Abiola; executed Ken Saro-Wiwa and Ogoni activists; international isolation; died in office June 1998 |
| Abdulsalami | 1998–1999 | Transition to democracy; drafted 1999 Constitution; handed over to Obasanjo (elected) May 1999 |
Most-tested facts: First coup — Ironsi (Jan 15, 1966); Unification Decree 34 — Ironsi; Civil War — Gowon (1967–70); Capital to Abuja — Murtala; June 12 annulment — Babangida; Ken Saro-Wiwa execution — Abacha. The 36 states structure was achieved under Babangida (1991).
Federalism & Local Government in Nigeria
Nigeria operates a three-tier federal system: Federal Government, 36 State Governments, and 774 Local Government Areas (LGAs).
Exclusive Legislative List: Only the Federal Government can legislate. Includes defence, foreign affairs, immigration, customs, currency, aviation, railways, nuclear energy.
Concurrent Legislative List: Both Federal and State governments can legislate, but federal law prevails in conflict. Includes education, agriculture, health, electricity, prison, statistics.
Residual Powers: Matters not in either list fall to the states. Includes markets, bus/taxi regulation, entertainment, local roads.
• Ethnic and cultural diversity — over 250 ethnic groups
• Large size and geographic spread
• Historical/colonial regions
• Economic disparities between regions
• To allow local self-government while maintaining national unity
Local government is the third tier of government. Nigeria has 774 LGAs. The 1976 Local Government Reform (under Murtala/Obasanjo) created a uniform system of local government nationwide.
• Collection of local rates and fees
• Establishment and maintenance of primary schools
• Registration of births, deaths, and marriages
• Construction and maintenance of local roads
• Provision of market stalls and parks
• Refuse collection and sanitation
• Community development and welfare services
• Inadequate funding — over-dependence on federal allocation
• Corruption and financial mismanagement
• Interference from state governments
• Lack of qualified personnel
• Political interference — partisan appointments
• Poor revenue generation capacity
1976 Local Government Reform: Created uniform single-tier local government; established elected councils; gave LGs constitutional status; fixed 10% of federal revenue to LGs; standardised functions. This is the foundation of modern Nigerian local government — know it thoroughly.
Nigeria's Foreign Policy & External Relations
Foreign policy is the set of strategies and objectives a state adopts to guide its interactions with other states and international organisations. It reflects a country's national interests, values, and capabilities.
• African-centred policy — Africa is the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy; Nigeria sees itself as the "Giant of Africa"
• Non-alignment — not formally aligned with any superpower bloc during the Cold War
• Respect for sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs of other states
• Peaceful settlement of disputes — through dialogue, negotiation, and international law
• Support for African liberation movements — Nigeria supported anti-apartheid struggles in South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Namibia
• Promotion of African unity and cooperation — through the OAU/AU and ECOWAS
• Respect for international law — adherence to UN Charter principles
• Promotion of economic development — using foreign policy to attract investment
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Size and population | Nigeria is the most populous African nation — this gives it political weight and bargaining power |
| Natural resources (oil) | Oil wealth gives Nigeria economic leverage in international relations |
| History and colonial experience | Nigeria's past shapes its sensitivity to sovereignty, non-interference, and African solidarity |
| Membership of international organisations | UN, AU, ECOWAS, OPEC, Commonwealth commitments shape policy |
| National interest | Security, economic prosperity, and prestige drive foreign policy decisions |
| Public opinion and domestic politics | Domestic pressures can influence external commitments |
- Co-founding of ECOWAS (1975) — Nigeria was a driving force in creating the Economic Community of West African States
- Support for liberation in southern Africa — provided financial and moral support to ANC (South Africa), ZAPU/ZANU (Zimbabwe), SWAPO (Namibia)
- ECOMOG — Nigeria led the ECOWAS Military Monitoring Group that restored peace in Liberia (1990s) and Sierra Leone
- Afrocentrism — championing African causes at the UN and other international forums
- Technical Aid Corps — Nigeria sends professionals to assist other African countries
Most tested foreign policy content: "State FOUR principles of Nigeria's foreign policy" and "State TWO ways Nigeria has contributed to African unity." Always mention ECOWAS co-founding, anti-apartheid support, and the centrepiece of Africa principle.
International Organisations
The United Nations was established in 1945 after World War II, replacing the League of Nations. Nigeria joined in 1960 upon independence.
| Principal Organ | Composition | Function |
|---|---|---|
| General Assembly | All 193 member states (each has one vote) | World parliament; debates global issues; makes non-binding resolutions |
| Security Council | 15 members: 5 permanent (USA, UK, France, Russia, China) + 10 elected | Primary responsibility for international peace and security; can authorise military action; P5 have veto power |
| International Court of Justice | 15 judges elected by General Assembly and Security Council | Settles disputes between states; gives advisory opinions |
| Secretariat | Headed by the Secretary-General | Administrative arm; implements UN decisions |
| Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) | 54 member states | Coordinates UN's economic, social, and development work |
Aims of the UN: Maintain international peace and security; develop friendly relations among nations; achieve international cooperation; promote human rights and fundamental freedoms. Know the five P5 permanent members of the Security Council by heart — WAEC tests this yearly.
| Organisation | Founded | HQ | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| African Union (AU) | 2002 (replaced OAU founded 1963) | Addis Ababa, Ethiopia | Promotes African unity, peace, and development; Peace and Security Council can authorise African peacekeeping forces; 55 member states |
| ECOWAS | 1975 (Treaty of Lagos) | Abuja, Nigeria | 15 West African member states; promotes economic integration; free trade; common currency goal (Eco); ECOMOG (military arm) for peacekeeping |
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was founded in 1963 in Addis Ababa — its primary goal was to decolonise Africa and support liberation movements. Once most of Africa was free, it was transformed into the African Union (AU) in 2002 to focus on economic integration, good governance, and peacekeeping.
| Organisation | Founded | Purpose | Nigeria's role |
|---|---|---|---|
| Commonwealth of Nations | 1931/1949 | Association of former British colonies; promotes democracy, human rights, and development among 56 member states | Member since independence 1960; suspended 1995–1999 under Abacha |
| OPEC | 1960 | Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries; coordinates petroleum policies to stabilise oil markets | Member since 1971; oil revenues drive Nigeria's economy |
| Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) | 1961 | Countries that chose not to formally align with either the USA or USSR during the Cold War | Nigeria is a member — reflects its non-alignment principle |
| World Trade Organization (WTO) | 1995 | Regulates international trade; resolves trade disputes | Member; promotes Nigeria's trade interests |
Commonwealth suspension: Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth in November 1995 after Abacha's execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogoni activists. Nigeria was re-admitted in May 1999 after the return to democratic rule. This is a frequently tested fact.
WAEC & JAMB Government Exam Guide
| Paper | Format | Time | Marks | Key Tips |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paper 1 (Objective) | 60 multiple-choice questions | 1 hour 30 minutes | 60 marks | Answer ALL questions. Eliminate wrong options. Each question carries equal marks — guess if unsure. |
| Paper 2 (Essay) | Answer 4 questions from 2 sections (Section A: General; Section B: Nigeria-specific) | 2 hours | 100 marks | Answer EXACTLY 4 questions (2 from each section). Use sub-headings. Aim for 5–8 well-explained points per question. |
• Rule of Law (Dicey's three pillars + limitations)
• Functions of the Legislature, Executive, Judiciary
• Types of constitutions and their differences
• Pre-colonial political systems (Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa-Fulani)
• Indirect Rule — success, failure, Aba Women's Riots
• Nigerian constitutional history (sequence and features)
• Military rule — causes, key regimes, return to democracy
• Functions and principles of INEC, ECOWAS, UN, AU
• Nigeria's foreign policy principles
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Format | Computer-Based Test (CBT) — 40 multiple-choice questions |
| Time | Government is combined with other Arts subjects; 40 minutes per subject |
| Marks | Each question = 2.5 marks; total = 100 marks |
| No. of choices | 4 options (A, B, C, D) per question |
| Recommended score | Aim for 28+/40 (70%) for competitive admission |
• Political concepts: state, nation, sovereignty, authority, legitimacy
• Types of government and political ideologies
• Nigeria's constitutions — dates and key features
• Pre-colonial political systems (acephalous vs centralised)
• Elections and electoral systems
• Military regimes — who did what and when
• Functions of INEC, pressure groups, civil service
• International organisations — UN, AU, ECOWAS, Commonwealth
- Memorise key dates — especially the sequence of constitutions (1922, 1946, 1951, 1954, 1960, 1963, 1979, 1999) and military coup dates
- Learn lists — functions of each organ, Dicey's Rule of Law, sources of the constitution, Nigeria's foreign policy principles. WAEC almost always asks "state five functions of..."
- Contrast pairs — presidential vs parliamentary; federal vs unitary; written vs unwritten; unicameral vs bicameral; direct vs indirect rule
- Know your pre-colonial systems cold — the key JAMB/WAEC distinction is acephalous (Igbo, Tiv) vs centralised (Yoruba, Hausa-Fulani, Benin)
- Practice past questions — WAEC and JAMB repeat themes every year with slightly different wording
- For essay questions — start with a definition, then give structured points with clear explanations, and end with a brief conclusion
Common mistakes to avoid: Confusing state and nation; confusing sovereignty (power) with legitimacy (accepted right to power); forgetting that Warrant Chiefs were APPOINTED (not traditional) in the Igbo case; mixing up the 1922 Clifford Constitution with later ones; confusing OAU (1963) with AU (2002).
You've now covered the full WAEC and JAMB Government syllabus. Take the 60-question timed CBT practice to see your score and identify which topics need more revision.